The recent natural disasters in Burma and China are devastating for all those affected. It may be that teachers are among the victims. What should family and friends do if they are fearful for the safety of a teacher working in the disaster zones?

The first point is...

Of course you should use very possible means available to you try to contact them in person: their mobile phone, email, their school’s phone and email, or perhaps try friends and colleagues who may know what has happened.

If you cannot make direct contact then get in touch with that country’s embassy or consulate and ask advice on how to trace the missing person. Unfortunately, in major disasters affecting large numbers of people, the process of tracing individuals can be very slow. It is worth remembering, therefore, that when teachers set off for distant lands, they should give some thought to what they could do in the event of being caught up in a disaster. As soon as they arrive in the country, they should register their personal details with their own embassy or consulate and if, in the disaster, they are able to, they should contact their embassy or consulate so that information about can be sent home as soon as is feasible. The British Foreign Office has an online service called Locate for people to register their travel plans and personal details: at https://www.locate.fco.gov.uk/locateportal/ They state the benefits of registering with LOCATE:
• "if a major catastrophe occurs we’ll have an instant record of your details so we can contact you to make sure you’re OK and provide advice
• if family and friends need to get in touch with you we can help them to find you

We’re confident Locate will improve our ability to provide help in crisis situations and reduce delay and worry in times of stress for family and friends at home."

Certain charities with international reach, such the Red Cross or the Salvation Army may also be able to help trace missing people. So if other channels are unsuccessful you could try them.

Before travelling overseas family members could take steps before departure to make any search easier:
• leave a photocopy of their travel documents including their passport, visas, airline tickets, and destination details.
• set up an email address they can use easily overseas
• agree on how regularly you can expect to hear from them and what they will do in the event of an emergency.

In teaching English for business, trainers normally organise the courses around typical business activities such as meetings, presentations, negotiations, telephoning, report writing and the like. This focus on activity has advantages...

Such an analysis provides a framework into which individual clients can insert material relevant to their own situation: a banker can talk about the benefits of European monetary union, a computer designer can introduce a new product. In this way, clients feel that the language they are learning is relevant to their specific needs and they can practise the activity in the safety of the classroom. They also feel that their objectives are kept in focus and that no time is wasted on aspects of language learning that are not immediately useful.

Drawbacks of the approach

There are, however, some notable drawbacks. There is evidence that the rather structured and sanitised language we teach does not mirror the real thing (M. Williams, Language Taught for Meetings and Language Used in Meetings : Is There Anything In Common? Applied Linguistics, vol. 9 no 10, 1988). The activities also are somewhat stereotyped: in reality no two similar activities are ever the same. However, the greatest weakness it that the language choices offered are far too limited. Although there is usually an attempt to distinguish among language exponents used for different levels of formality, little impression is given of the subtlety of language or of the rhetorical features that contribute to different styles of language use and which provide the clues to the speaker's
intentions.

To illustrate this point, I wish to take the stage in a negotiation at which the participants are reaching agreement. (See also Williams, p. 55.)

Textbooks would typically give learners choices of the following kinds:

I can accept that
I can go along with that
It's a deal
Let's shake on it

Recent materials have gone further than providing a list of typical language items and have analysed typical choices to be made within a particular kind of activity. Thus agreement might be seen as involving a stage of partial acceptance with conditions attached. But there is still no attempt to match linguistic strategy to the intention of the speaker.

Further examples are not difficult to find, but what they all have in common is a directness that may make meaning transparent, but which is not necessarily typical of actual linguistic behaviour. Rhetorical features such as irony are common in British English as is indirectness. A phrase such as "that's not unreasonable" has, I suggest, much more the flavour of British English than some of the items above.

Identifying the gaps

The solution is not merely one of widening the repertoire of language items that clients can learn. There are behaviour patterns in language use that give clues as to the real import of a message. There are conventions which require us very often to use implicit rather explicit forms. For many people self-praise, for example, is difficult as it seems like a breach of the 'Modesty Maxim' (Leech, Principles of Pragmatics, p132). If asked the question, "What has been your major contribution to this project?" a reply along the lines of "Well, I'm not too unhappy with the customer profiles" might seem to some to be damning with faint praise. In fact it reveals the speaker to be very pleased indeed with his
or her performance but too polite to say so. People will also very often say something, not because they mean it, but because they are expected to say it. The language learner needs to be able to recognise the difference between a sincere utterance and one made just for
the form.

There is also the need of the speaker to feel that in some way he or she is in control of the response that will ensue. All these pragmatic aspects of language use are more to do with tactics and strategy than just meaning or function. They require the speaker to be acutely aware of the situation in which the exchanges are taking place and of the effects they are
seeking to produce.

Finding real examples

All this suggests a different categorisation, or at least a supplementary one, from the now traditional pattern of set-piece business activities with which we are familiar. In particular we need to look at strategies for language choice and at rhetorical devices that are intended to produce a particular effect. While similar observations have been made before, by Williams, (op. cit.) for one, little has appeared to offer concrete suggestions for how to transfer these ideas into the materials we produce for English for business.

There is an interesting crossover point between linguistic strategy and the choice of a rhetorical device, for example, in techniques such as 'broken record', where the need to assert a point beyond doubt is conveyed through repetition. 'Broken record' is an assertiveness technique, (although it can cross over into aggression) used in recent history most effectively by Margaret Thatcher. It involves calm reiteration of what the speaker wants and helps the speaker ignore objections and diversions from any opponent. (Manuel J. Smith, When I Say No, I Feel Guilty, p. 323). Taken in isolation, the device
of repetition may be seen as redundant, even a sign of linguistic inadequacy. However, the client who can use this technique and understand that it is a tactical move, will be part of the way towards successful interaction. The client who can recognise the technique in others and yet not be deflected by it, is certainly in a winning position. It is this aspect of understanding tactical rules for language use that is currently lacking.

If we return to the language area of agreeing, we might look in greater detail at how agreement is in fact signalled not just by certain types of language use but by accompanying gesture and body language. The overall message is a combination of unspoken signals and carefully chosen words. Merely voicing agreement is not enough. In fact someone who is really committed is likely to take off into other types of linguistic behaviour such as asking questions and summarising. There will also be aspects of gesture and expression that reinforce this. The problem for our clients is that by relying on the explicit meaning of the message alone, they are likely to misinterpret apparent agreement as wholehearted agreement and they are themselves in danger of appearing half-hearted by taking too literal an approach.

Defining areas for consideration

To take the need for concrete proposals further, I would suggest that categories like those below are worth including in training for business clients. Each category involves strategic language use rather than functional or structural use, and has associated rhetorical devices with a range of expected effects on the listener.

Aggressive language styles: excessive use of 'I' statements; stating
opinion as fact; threatening; blaming;
using 'ought', 'should.'

Agreeing: summarising, questioning, volunteering to help, eye contact, leaning forward, willingness to commit to writing, reformulating.

Disagreement: merely saying yes; leaving others to question; avoiding eye contact, leaning back with arms folded, resisting written agreement.

Appraising: encouraging the seeking of feedback; looking for real evidence; suggesting and agreeing areas for improvement.

Asking and answering questions: (see discussion below)

Asserting: brief statements that are to the point; statements of personal opinion; open-ended questions; distinguishing opinion from fact; seeking opinions of others; looking for solutions.

Brainstorming: statement of problems; seeking 'how to' suggestions, suspension of judgement during the gathering of ideas.

Controlling: exaggerating; interrupting; denigrating; repeating.

Counselling: offering reassurance; asking open-ended questions; reformulating and playing back; encouraging disclosure; supporting
solutions; agreeing action plans.

Criticising: describing a situation; analysing causes and effects; offering constructive suggestions; reaching agreed solutions.

Difficulty stating: avoiding direct disagreement by pointing out the problems in a course of action.

Empathising: using non-threatening small talk; using other person's name; using humour; matching interest with appropriate non-
verbal behaviour (eye contact, leaning towards other speaker); showing
willingness to take the other person's perspective.

Helpful behaviour: making listening noises; using the other
person's name; asking open-ended questions; summarising what other
person has said; building on the other person's ideas; giving reasons when
disagreeing; matching body language towards.

Manipulating: (see discussion below)

Persuading: stating benefits; providing evidence; diffusing objections; summarising.

Praising: being specific; not mixing praise with criticism; confining the scope of the praise to the present and not linking it to
targets for the future.

Reviewing: listing what went well and what needs improving; selecting issues to focus on; generating ideas for future strategy;
selecting ideas; planning action.

Seeking ideas: genuinely inviting suggestions from others instead of proffering one's own; brainstorming.

Submissive language styles: using long rambling sentences; using qualifying statements and fillers; putting oneself down; understating the
importance of the situation.

In examining categories of these kinds we can furnish learners with the modern day business equivalent of a medieval (or classical) treatise on rhetoric. The rhetoricians atomised the means by which speakers and writers could persuade or influence others by manipulating devices such as repetition, exempla, description, irony or by taking up particular attitudes, such as false modesty. Many such modern-day devices descend into cliché: it's not for me to judge; with great respect; as we all know - phrases that usually imply the opposite of what they say, the language of the 'scurvy politician' and, very often, the wily businessman/woman. The importance of such devices, however, is their underlying manipulative intention, intentions of which learners need to be aware.

A study exploring just such rhetorical use of language is Joanna Channel's Vague Language. Vagueness may appear to be a linguistic disability, a sign of not being able to express oneself appropriately. However, Channel argues convincingly that vagueness is more likely to be used intentionally. Far from being a sign of inadequacy, she claims it is an important aspect of the "language users' knowledge of their language" (p.194). She goes on to claim that (vague expressions) "are deliberately chosen for their contribution to the communicative message" (p.195). The importance of such a study to the field of English for business is that it reinforces the importance of moving away from explicit language use, to language use governed by tactical rules.

Asking questions, is another activity that could be placed into the category of rhetorical devices. In other words, by questioning we are seeking to influence the hearer in ways beyond the apparent intention of seeking information. We can ask questions:

to show we are actively listening to what someone has to say in order to encourage them to elaborate and expatiate;
to draw timid or less confident people into a conversation (open ended questions);
to interrogate (yes/no questions).

Yet, if we really want information, then techniques for eliciting, such as re-formulation or invitations to explain further are likely to be more effective than direct questions. People may become defensive or resentful if questioning techniques are too obtrusive. Activities to help the client use questioning techniques more effectively and match them to an appropriate communicative strategy involve listening to, viewing or reading conversations in which different questioning techniques are used; analysing the different uses of questions; and a practice stage in which they select the questioning techniques appropriate to a particular activity.

Should we censor the English we teach? I suppose if our students are under a certain age, we should avoid any coarse and vulgar expression but adults might well demand a smattering of oaths and rude words, if not to use, at least so...

The English-speaking world is rightly proud of its rich and diverse literature. However, ways of incorporating it into the English curriculum are not easy. The complexity of...

Let us take a novel, say, Pride and Prejudice. First the historical and social context needs to be explored. Learners can read and study about the period and perhaps make comparisons with the social and historical conditions of the same period in their own country. Issues would be the Napoelonic wars, the respective roles of men and women, class divisions, leisure pursuits, the role of religion. Once the background has been explored with ample visual illustrations to aid understanding, the plot of the novel can be summarized. I would then suggest that selected passages are read and analyzed both for literary and linguistic content. Dramatized scenes from the novel on DVD could then be watched. Students may then wish to read an abridged version of the novel (Penguin ELT Simplified Readers, Level 5) if they are not able to tackle the whole work.

With even more complex works such as Shakespeare’s plays a slightly different approach may be needed. While some historical context for the playwright and the theatre would be useful, many of the plays will well respond to a thematic approach.

For King Lear, for example, the themes of old age, the responsibility children have towards parents, honesty and insincerity can all be discussed before the play is looked at. Again a summary needs to be given so that the sequence of events is understood. I would then suggest going straight into watching scenes on DVD: small sections with students given plenty of preparation to enable them to grasp as much of the language as possible. After viewing a series of small sections, the play could be watched in its entirety by those wishing to do so.

What I am suggesting is that to plough relentlessly through pages of dense text would kill the students’ motivation to tackle literature. But by contextualising it, making comparisons with their own culture and discussing key themes that have a universal relevance, students will be drawn into the topic and wish to explore it more.

As I said last time I want to explore this topic further. The individual teacher’s own milieu, the classroom, is the...

The layout of the classroom needs consideration. How are the desks or tables arranged? Serried ranks will promote a formal, teacher-dominated atmosphere. A horseshoe shape, blocks of four, organising desks so there is a central space: these arrangements will enhance different types of learning, so the teacher needs to think carefully about the activities planned and what arrangements will best suit them.

Keep poster displays, boards and teaching aids, tidy and up to date. If you have material displayed, you want learners to use it, so keep it fresh, relevant and well organised. It can be helpful to dedicate a board, wall space or a table for students to bring in their own material for display.

In dealing with students, the teacher will wish to foster mutual respect: respect for the teacher from the students, for the students from the teacher and among the students. This means mutually agreed rules of behaviour but also an understanding of individual needs and problems. What if one or two students have transport or family problems that mean it is difficult for them to arrive on time? Supposing a student needs to take medicine or keep up blood sugar levels? Knowing about difficulties allows the teacher to make provision within the overall structure.

Learning itself should be framed in a positive approach that allows everyone to achieve something and to make real steps towards reaching their potential. The teacher can help maintain a positive outlook by setting clear targets and then summarizing achievements at the end of each lesson. Learners can keep diaries to log their milestones towards goals.

Why not share your ideas about creating a learner-friendly classroom?

The title might seem like a strange question: after all, English language schools exist for their learners. But the point is that learners...

A learner-friendly school will:
• Reflect and realize the rights of every student by promoting and monitoring the well-being and rights of all learners, and providing a safe and secure environment.

• See and understand the whole person in a broad context. This means understanding their needs in the round, not just their educational needs. The issues might include health, nutrition, cultural and religious needs as well as an awareness of how their learning will impact on their future lives.

• Be learner-centred and encourage participation, creativity, self-esteem, and psycho-social well-being; promoting a structured, curriculum and teaching-learning methods appropriate to the student’s developmental level, abilities, and learning style.

• Be gender-sensitive by reducing to constraints to gender equity and eliminating gender stereotypes.

• Promote quality outcomes by encouraging students to think critically, ask questions, express their opinions, and learn how to learn.

• Provide education based on the reality of students’ lives by ensuring that curricular content responds to the learning needs of individuals as well as to the general objectives of their education system and their personal situation (e.g., by providing certificates and documentation that might be needed by employers or other educational organizations).

• Be flexible and respond to diversity by meeting different circumstances and needs of learners (e.g., as determined by gender, culture, social class, current situation).

• Act to ensure inclusion, respect, and equality of opportunity for all learners by not stereotyping, excluding, or discriminating.

• Promote mental and physical health by providing emotional support , encouraging healthy behaviour and practices, and providing a supportive environment.

• Provide accessible education at a fair price, making some provision for those who do not have the financial resources to attend full-fee courses (e.g., by offering scholarships, part-time classes).

• Enhance teacher capacity, morale, commitment, and status by ensuring that its teachers have sufficient pre-service training, in-service support and professional development, status, and income.

I think this type of approach is a way of reconciling the sometimes opposing imperatives of the commercial and the educational. Yes, schools are commercial enterprises, but they deal with human beings and they need a philosophy that underpins their activities ethically and morally. In future post I will discuss some of the individual points in greater detail.

To continue my ideas for teaching about the language I want to make some suggestions for lesson content. Language–based topics are a legitimate source of material for listening and reading comprehension and for various classroom ...

For reading comprehension you might try a text describing the history of English (http://www.anglik.net/englishlanguagehistory.htm). This could be used for all kinds of reading activities according to the size and needs of your group. Once the text itself has been absorbed, it provides rich discussion topics too.

For writing practice you could use the timeline at the end of that article or the one in this link: http://www.danshort.com/ie/timeline.htm. Students could use the key points to write their own simple history of English.

If you have access to good dictionaries that give etymologies as well as current meanings you could do some dictionary work to show how the meanings of words change gradually through history. For example, the words “lord” and “lady” refer to high-ranking folk today but originally they were the “keeper of the bread” and the “kneader of the bread” respectively. You could use the dictionaries to help students understand that sometimes words degenerate (look up “silly”) and sometimes, as with “lord” and “lady,” become more elevated. By looking up the word “person”, they can discover how meanings can fork so that one word eventually yields more than one meaning with a spelling variation: ”parson.”

For more advanced students you might even have fun with pronunciation. If they worry about their accent, it might reassure them to learn how fluid this element really is. Try a listening clip from Chaucer: http://academics.vmi.edu/english/audio/audio_index.html.

Explorations into the development of English seem to me a fascinating way of skills-building while enhancing students’ knowledge of the wonderful language they are learning.

Firstly, knowing something about the language can help students use it more effectively and, secondly, students are as likely to be interested in the language and its development as any other topic that is raised in the classroom.

So, first, how can knowing about the language help students use it more effectively? If we look at how English has developed we can see several broad lines of “ancestry” for its vocabulary. We have the Germanic line with its characteristic short, sharp words; the later Scandinavian/Nordic line characterized by velar consonants (cake, awkward, skirt): these two lines formed the bulk of Anglo Saxon vocabulary; and we have the Greek/Latin/French ancestry giving us multi-syllabic words that belonged to the domains of the Church, the court and the law. In practice, the Anglo Saxon words are used much more in the spoken language and are in the domain of everyday life: night, earth, house, bread.

The vocabulary derived from Greek and Latin has a formal quality and is often used more in written language and in special domains such as medicine or law. But it is also much more amenable to dissection and if students learn the common prefixes and suffixes they have the key to many new words. Thus the prefix “inter” from Latin meaning “among”/”between” /”mutually” is the clue to the meaning of such words as: interact, interbreed, interpret, interval. Or the Greek prefix “anthropos” (mankind) can help with the meanings of: anthropology, misanthropy, anthropoid, anthropocentric, anthropomorphic, philanthropy.

The examples given immediately show the different flavours of the vocabularies: imagine how pompous a person would sound if his or her vocabulary was mainly of Greek or Latin origin. This is why phrasal verbs are so important in spoken English as the equivalent Latin or Greek words sound much more formal (switch off the light/extinguish the light).

Next time I will talk about using topics about English for lesson content.

I was asked recently by a teacher for some ideas on teaching idioms. Idioms enliven language and students enjoy learning them. I find it useful to sort idioms into categories, and as an example...

Choose the meaning of the idiom used in the sentences from the choices below and write the letter underneath:

1. When the boss finds out we've lost
the contract, heads will roll.

2. In this kind of negotiation you mustn't expect
too much; even if they promise a lot,
we've got to keep out feet on the ground.

3. He's determined to buy the new equipment
even though it will cost an arm and a leg.

4. I really don't trust him; he's hand in glove
with the tax inspectors.

5. I know you don't want to reduce the staff
but in this economic climate we have no choice,
so you'll just have to grit your teeth and
do what's necessary.

6. I'm surprised he's investing in that company;
he got his fingers burnt once before
by buying those kinds of shares.

7.John's the apple of the boss’s eye
so it's no good trying to criticise his work.

8. She's burying her head in the sand;
she doesn't want to see this month's figures.

9. Don't take compliments from him too seriously;
I've always found him two-faced.

10. I'm not sure if should take the offer at face value
or whether they have some hidden agenda.

A. hypocritical

B. a favourite person

C. people will be dismissed from their jobs

D. avoid seeing the truth of a situation

E. very expensive

F. accept that you have to do something unpleasant

G. the price and conditions as stated

H. to have a very close relationship with somebody

I. to have had a bad experience

J. to be realistic

People complain mainly when they perceive a gap in their expectations and reality. When it comes to language schools there are two kinds of expectation. First there are basic ...

The second set of expectations comes from the publicity generated by the school itself. Clearly any discrepancy between what is advertised and what is offered will be a possible area of complaint from students.

Beyond these expectations, it is possible to identify some clear categories of complaint. When students travel for language courses their biggest concern is the quality of their accommodation, whether this is a homestay, hostel or other type of rental accommodation. It is essential for schools to match the student to appropriate accommodation. Dietary concerns are of major importance, privacy, adequate study facilities are also vital. But religious and cultural sensitivities also play a big part.

The next category concerns expectations about how the courses are delivered: timetable, class sizes, teaching styles, qualifications of teachers, resources. If students find these are not as described in the school’s publicity they will complain.

Then there is the school environment: the size and comfort of rooms, provision of all that is described in the publicity. The key here is to give frank and accurate descriptions so as not to mislead the students.

Schools need a clearly described complaints policy that is understood by all and adhered to faithfully. It is inevitable that some complaints will be justifiable, in which case the school will have to make amends appropriately, and that others will be
Hollow. But all complaints need to be investigated in an open and fair manner.

Intonation is the melody of language and its cadences are meaningful. In spoken language sentences have to be divided into tone units to allow the speakers to take breath. As these units are spoken the pitch of the voice varies: some languages, including English, have a wide pitch-range others less so.
In each tone unit a rise or fall in tone (or a combination of the two) takes place
on the most important syllable. This tonic-syllable is usually a significant word,
near the end of the unit. A neutral intonation usually involves a low fall on the tonic to indicate that the phrase is coming to an end. This simple device helps the listener to group words according to meaning.

Those of you who know your Shakespeare will remember how Quince delivers a prologue to the play, Pramus and Thisbe in which the real meanings are reversed by wrong intonation so that the phrase clusters are muddled:

Consider then we come but in despite. We do not come as minding to content you,
Our true intent is. All for your delight
We are not here. That you should here repent you.

By varying the intonation you can sound as if you are asking a question, are surprised, bored and so on.

Why teach intonation? Intonation exists in every language, so the concept we're introducing isn't new. However, learners are often so busy finding their words that intonation suffers. Yet intonation can be as important as word choice - we don't always realise how much difference intonation makes:
• Awareness of intonation aids communication.
• Incorrect intonation can result in misunderstandings, speakers losing interest or even taking offence!

Though it's unlikely our learners will need native-speaker-level pronunciation, what they do need, is greater awareness of intonation to facilitate their speaking and listening.

It is important to understand that effective communication is a two-way process. Don’t make the mistake of believing that because you have said something or issued written instructions your audience will have understood it, agreed with it and will act on it. To give you an example, I once wrote a comprehensive manual for summer teachers and presented this to them during their induction day. But on a daily basis I had questions from the teachers concerning the matters that were explained in the manual. My mistake was to have simply given out the manual and assume that it would be read and digested.

So, remember that each act of communication has to be planned and implemented. What is the most effective means of delivery? How will you check that the message has been understood and what feedback do you need to ensure instructions are carried out?

My next point is that because the post requires sensitive handling of colleagues and bosses, not to mention students, you will have to be far more considered in the way you communicate with others. Your teachers may be angry over a management decision but you may have to consider how to interpret their mood when you report to the bosses. If you convey their anger you might make the situation worse. What might be more effective is to present an analysis of why this is an inappropriate decision.

Another of your audiences might be external to the school: agents, the press, patrons, parents and sponsors. Again you will need to communicate tactfully and discreetly with these groups as you have a responsibility for the school’s PR.

A D.O.S. also needs to be a good listener. Conduct any delicate interviews in private. Ask appropriate questions to get the key facts. Keep a record of the conversation and agree with the person the steps that you each need to take to deal with the issue.

You need to run efficient meetings. Meetings tend to be viewed as a necessary evil and people often resent the way they encroach on their precious time. A crisp and no-nonsense style will be better appreciated than a lot of waffle and long-windedness. So, have an agenda, stick to it and give people a limited time in which to speak.

Pitfalls to avoid in communication style are being patronizing, being too familiar, being too formal and being inconsistent.

The director of studies’ post is a coveted step up the career rung for many teachers, but is promotion to this role something every teacher can handle? It’s worth...

In the first place, you will have to be independent, self-confident, resourceful and resilient, because the DO.S is both isolated and exposed. Belonging neither to senior management nor the teachers, you have to be able to mediate between those two levels while not necessarily having allies in either camp. Senior management might try to shield itself from the effects of unpopular decisions by asking you to implement them and teachers might ask you to convey their complains about decisions and working conditions to senior management. And, if you are promoted from among the teachers you have worked with, some may resent your newly acquired authority over them.

You need to be a person who can deal with change because it will be your task to implement change as and when needed. If you are somebody who resists change then this role is not for you. In implementing change you will need to be able persuade other of its advantages and gain their cooperation in putting it into practice.

You need to be well organised because your duties will not follow the same simple timetable you had as teacher. No day will the same so you need to be good at time management and systematic in your approach.

You will need excellent people skills because you will need to inspire confidence and trust and will have to be able to motivate others. In fact this whole area warrants a new entry all on its own so I will deal with this in more detail next time.

Needless to say you require communication skills. And don’t think that because you can communicate well to learners, it will be the same with colleagues. You will require tact and diplomacy, a clear sense of what communication styles work with your colleagues, the ability to deal with difficult people and be able to listen not just to overt messages but to what lies behind the words.

You will need to problem-solving skills: in other words, when a difficulty arises you will have to deal with it and will not be able to pass it on to others to handle. What do you do if two teachers are sick, if books that are ordered do not arrive, if students make a complaint, rooms become unusable for whatever reason?

And I think you will need to be a ‘political’ animal. By that I mean that you will have to be able understand how decisions and actions impact on all involved and work out strategies for keeping everybody happy!

An impossible challenge? Perhaps not, but almost.

Hofstede's fifth cultual dimension, long-term versus short-term orientation, is very much an east/west division. Confucianism looks at life in the long-term rather than the short-term. Confucian teaching...

For western teachers working in cultures with a long-term orientation, it can be quite difficult to find acceptance, as the newcomer clearly does not belong to any of these long fostered networks. Indeed, western cultures tend to be at the opposite end of the spectrum: promoting equal relationships, emphasizing individualism, and finding fulfillment through personal creativity and self-development. Asian cultures are oriented to practice and the search for virtuous behaviour while western cultures are oriented to belief and the search for truth. This can mean that the teacher experiences an extreme form of culture shock as all the values of the home culture are turned on their heads.

Teachers working in countries with long term orientation might emphasize the following in their lesson planning, teaching style and relationships with colleagues:
• choose content that is well tested and has real practical value--students are less likely to seek constant innovation
• cultivate relationships as a source of information and credibility--defer to elders and superiors in the hierarchy
• be patient in achieving results and goals--build good foundations slowly rather than try to achieve quick results.

Thus in cultures with high uncertainty avoidance organizations have more formal rules and expect longer-term commitments. They look to structure in all areas to help make events interpretable and predictable.

For teachers in schools in such cultures, it is expected that they are experts in their field, who know the answers. Teachers are there to make everything clear and to give unambiguous instruction. Learners will expect that there will be a right and a wrong answer to all questions and may feel uncomfortable with suggestions that issues are multi-dimensional and nuanced.

In contrast, in cultures with low uncertainty avoidance, organizations may be more informal and tolerant of many perspectives. Teachers are advisors rather than gurus and do not have to know all the answers. They can have open-ended discussions.

So how can teachers adapt to each of these cultures? For the former, teachers will have to go cautiously with any activities requiring group work and discussion. Learners are likely to put their trust in the teacher rather than each other. Teachers may find learners are slightly suspicious of them as outsiders, preferring teachers of their own nationality whose attitudes they can predict and thus feel safe with. If the teacher attempts any sort of consultative process, the learners may lose respect for him or her because such an approach might be interpreted as lack of confidence on the teacher’s part. They should not be too casual in their classroom behaviour: if they ask learners to address them by their first name, the learners will be reluctant to do so. It could be difficult for teachers to persuade learners to try new methods as innovation involves uncertainty about outcomes. Indeed. Learners will be motivated by fear of failure so will appreciate activities that involve following instructions for a sure outcome.

At the other end of the scale, teachers in low uncertainty avoidance cultures can expect much a more flexible attitude from learners. Learners are less likely to see the teachers as the source of all knowledge than as a guide. It will be possible to be more casual and to use group activities and to make decisions by consultation. New ideas and methods will be easier to introduce, as learners will be unafraid of experiment and will enjoy problem solving and tasks with uncertain outcomes.